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Literary Devices
Definition of Allusion
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or philosophical ideas... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to... read full definition
Chapter 3
Explanation and Analysis—Utilitarianism:
At the beginning of Chapter 3, the narrator describes Richard Caramel's worldview by alluding to utilitarianism:
From his undergraduate days as editor of The Harvard Crimson Richard Caramel had desired to write. But as a senior he had picked up the glorified illusion that certain men were set aside for “service” and, going into the world, were to accomplish a vague yearnful something which would react either in eternal reward or, at the least, in the personal satisfaction of having striven for the greatest good of the greatest number. This spirit has long rocked the colleges in America. It begins, as a rule, during the immaturities and facile impressions of freshman year—sometimes back in preparatory school.
Utilitarianism arose in the 18th and 19th centuries in the works of philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. This ethical theory holds that the best action is the one that produces the "greatest good for the greatest number." In other words, this theory tells people that they should promote the general welfare of humanity.
In the passage above, the narrator mocks this theory. He calls it a "glorified illusion" and puts "service" in quotation marks to suggest the futility of serving humanity, or at least the self-deception involved in believing one has done so. In a subsequent passage, he refers to this idea as an "octopus" that "wind[s] a sinuous tentacle" around Richard. The narrator's skepticism makes sense, as the novel demonstrates that most people in Anthony's class rarely consider other people at all, let alone doing the greatest good for the greatest number. So it seems that this theory would be, in practice, utterly useless. However, the same optimism that prompted Richard to accept utilitarianism likewise fuels his writing career. He pursues success relentlessly and finally succeeds in publishing a book. Thus the narrator's mockery falls flat in light of Richard's ultimate success.
It is important to note that Richard's character is not defined by utilitarian philosophy. His strength does not derive directly from accepting any particular philosophy but rather from a desire to adhere to a code of conduct. His discipline to follow rules differentiates him from Anthony, who thinks life is meaningless and spends all his time pursuing pleasure. Richard, on the other hand, remains steadfastly committed to his goals. The allusion to utilitarianism demonstrates his early willingness to commit to what he believes to be the best ideology (as opposed to floating around aimlessly, wasting his time and money).
Related Themes:
Chapter 4
Explanation and Analysis—Plato's Symposium:
Allusions to Plato's Symposium reinforce the novel's themes of love and beauty. The Symposium tells the story of a dinner party among several great thinkers, each of whom offers a different viewpoint on love and desire. For example, love is first discussed as the motivating force that causes people to think about beauty. Then it is presented as a process of first appreciating physical beauty and then realizing the superiority of spiritual beauty. The work emphasizes the goodness of nonphysical beauty and spiritual love while remaining ambivalent about the morality of loving beautiful objects.
Fitzgerald exploits this ambivalence by shifting from an optimistic exposition (in which Anthony and Gloria begin their relationship) to a more pessimistic conclusion (in which they become morally corrupt by greed and superficiality). For example, in Chapter 4, Gloria references Aristophanes's story of original humanity:
“Mother says”—she hesitated uncertainly—“mother says that two souls are sometimes created together and—and in love before they’re born.”
In The Symposium, Aristophanes describes the original humans as spherical creatures. Some were half-male half-female, some wholly male, and some wholly female. These creatures grew prideful and tried to take over Mount Olympus. In order to punish them, Zeus cleft their bodies in half. However, he permitted them to reunite with one another by falling in love.
In the passage above, Gloria references the male-female figures whose souls were "created together." Her purpose here is to insist upon the divine ordination of their love. She believes that it was inevitable they should be together. However, she hesitates, Anthony laughs at her, and these small gestures reveal the uncertainty of her words. Gloria remains unaware of the story's original source and relies instead on the authority of her mother. Nor does she particularly care about the story's origin; rather, she only wants to use it to establish security in her relationship.
Related Themes:
Chapter 5
Explanation and Analysis—World War I:
World War I (1914-1918) serves as a historical backdrop to The Beautiful and Damned. There are many allusions to it throughout the story. For example, in Chapter 5, Anthony briefly considers the presence of war:
As the conversation continued in stilted commas, Anthony wondered that to him and Bloeckman both this girl had once been the most stimulating, the most tonic personality they had ever known—and now the three sat like overoiled machines, without conflict, without fear, without elation, heavily enamelled little figures secure beyond enjoyment in a world where death and war, dull emotion and noble savagery were covering a continent with the smoke of terror.
This allusion sets up a direct comparison between Anthony's life of ease and the "smoke of terror" that impacts nearly everyone else in the country. He and Bloeckman remain "secure" in a dangerous world. They have money, safety, and social connections—hence the narrator's comparison of Anthony and his friends to "overoiled machines." Indeed, they are machines: Anthony strives to preserve access to his family's wealth, and Joseph works mechanically to succeed in the film industry. Both pursue clear (if heartless) objectives of social ascension and self-preservation. However, neither man engages with the war's true significance. They view it as a far-off threat that might turn into an inconvenience if they are drafted. This scene reveals that they are "heavily enameled little figures," equally numb to personal and international conflicts.
Another important aspect is Anthony's failure as a soldier. About halfway through the novel, Anthony goes south to an army training camp. He feels a sense of freedom from his marriage but fails to achieve anything other than a short reprieve from his fights with Gloria. His inability to complete simple tasks shows his general incompetence. In fact, the war ends before his deployment, but he might not have been deployed due to his pitiful performance. This is a significant part of the story because it is perhaps the closest any of the characters get to participating in the war.
Despite the fact of World War I's deep importance and near-universal impacts, most of the characters treat it as unimportant. They refuse to engage with its implications, preferring instead to continue their shallow social climbing. Gloria speaks of it shallowly. Anthony fails to serve effectively. So the allusions to war function not only to ground the story in historical reality; they also remind the reader of the characters' ignorance of that reality.
Related Themes:
